CARDIOVASCULAR JOURNAL OF AFRICA • Volume 33, No 5, September/October 2022 AFRICA 237 index and a higher WC compared to men (p = 0.000 and 0.000, respectively). More women were overweight and obese and had abdominal obesity (high WC) compared to men (p = 0.000 and 0.000, respectively). The levels of SBP were higher in men than in women (p = 0.01). Table 3 presents age and biochemical data by MA status in men and women. The table is split into males and females since the ACR was found to be significantly different between males and females in this study. This was done to control for the effect of gender on the association. Women with MA were significantly older than those without MA (53.66 ± 19.90 vs 48.25 ± 19.55, p = 0.01). Insulin levels were significantly higher in women with MA compared to women without MA [8.09 (4.62–15.60) vs 6.11 (3.23–9.68 μIU/l) after adjusting for age (p = 0.00)]. In women with MA, HOMA was higher compared to those with NA (1.67 ± 1.19 vs 2.22 ± 1.46%) (p = 0.01). Women with MA had a higher median TG compared to women without [1.19 (0.82– 1.88) vs 1.06 (0.68–1.66 mmol/l) (p = 0.03)]. Women with MA were found to have a lower eGFR compared to women without MA (96.17 ± 22.64 vs 88.76 ± 24.47 ml /min/1.73 m2) (p = 0.00). Women with MA had a higher creatinine compared to women without MA (77.39 ± 16.34 vs 82.71 ± 21.20 µmol/l) (p = 0.01). HOMA index levels were found in this study to be significantly higher in men with MA compared to those with NA (1.56 ± 1.18 vs 2.02 ± 1.57 units) (p = 0.00). Men with MA were found to have higher levels of insulin compared to men without MA [5.36 (3.18–9.30) vs 5.65 (3.20–5.18 μIU/l) (p = 0.04)]. The prevalence of high HOMA was higher in men with MA compared to those without MA (p = 0.01) and in women with MA compared with women without MA (p = 0.00). Table 4 presents anthropometric and blood pressure measurements by MA status in men and women. Women with MA had a significantly higher SBP compared to women without MA (125.28 ± 21.51 vs 134.94 ± 30.60 mmHg) (p = 0.00). Women had a higher prevalence of hypertension, SBP and DBP (p = 0.00, 0.00 and 0.01, respectively). Men with MA had a high Table 2. Anthropometry and blood pressure data of males and females Variables All Female Male p-value BMI (kg/m2) 25.77 ± 7.00 26.97 ± 7.49 23.59 ± 5.68 0.00 WC (cm) 85.14 ± 14.28 88.23 ± 14.59 80.03 ± 12.13 0.00 SBP (mmHg) 130.47 ± 24.73 128.56 ± 25.38 133.73 ± 23.39 0.01 DBP (mmHg) 81.81 ± 14.05 82.02 ± 13.81 81.51 ± 14.47 0.68 Overweight (25–29.9 kg/m2), n (%) 149 (26.8) 100 (28.1) 49 (24.6) 0.00 Obese (≥ 30 kg/m2), n (%) 141 (25.4) 113 (31.7) 28 (14.1) High WC (≥ 80 cm: F; ≥ 94 cm: M), n (%) 296 (50.0) 264 (71.2) 32 (14.5) 0.00 High SBP (≥ 140 mmHg), n (%) 180 (29.9) 107 (28.4) 73 (32.4) 0.29 High DBP (≥ 90 mmHg), n (%) 154 (26.0) 103 (27.6) 51 (23.2) 0.23 % hypertension (high SBP, DBP and/or history of hypertension), n (%) 279 (45.8) 172 (45.6) 104 (46.2) 0.89 BMI, body mass index; WC, waist circumference; SBP, systolic blood pressure; DBP, diastolic blood pressure. Table 3. Age and biochemical data by MA status and gender Variables Male p-value Female p-value NA (n = 137) MA (n = 88) NA (n = 250) MA (n = 127) ACR (mg/mmol) 1.12 (0.71–1.75) 5.09 (3.43–6.72) 0.00 1.36 (0.82–2.08) 6.94 (4.83–10.73) 0.00 Age (years) 44.45 ± 21.57 48.97 ± 23.59 0.14 48.25 ± 19.55 53.66 ± 19.90 0.01 Glucose (mmol/l) 5.07 ± 0.85 5.22 ± 0.79 0.19 5.22 ± 0.85 5.05 ± 0.84 0.07 Insulin (µIU/l) 5.36 (3.18–9.30) 5.65 (3.20–5.18) 0.04 6.11 (3.23–9.68) 8.09 (4.62–15.60) 0.00 HOMA (%) 1.56 ± 1.18 2.02 ± 1.57 0.00 1.67 ± 1.19 2.22 ± 1.46 0.01 IL-6 (pg/ml) 2.94 (1.94–5.48) 3.25 (1.96–4.68) 0.51 3.09 (1.94–4.68) 3.11 (2.02–4.98) 0.89 hs-CRP (mg/l) 1.41 (0.48–2.06) 0.92 (0.44–2.06) 0.09 1.86 (0.68–5.33) 1.78 (0.58–5.42) 0.92 TC (mmol/l) 4.33 ± 1.05 4.34 ± 1.09 0.90 4.64 ± 1.41 4.65 ± 1.09 0.16 HDL-C (mmol/l) 1.31 ± 0.32 1.37 ± 0.31 0.17 1.36 ± 0.68 1.32 ± 0.36 0.57 LDL-C (mmol/l) 2.42 ± 0.93 2.41 ± 0.94 0.95 2.57 ± 1.29 2.69 ± 0.87 0.29 TG (mmol/l) 1.21 (0.77–1.51) 0.95 (0.61–1.77) 0.69 1.06 (0.68–1.66) 1.19 (0.82–1.88) 0.03 TC/HDL-C 3.44 ± 1.01 3.31 ± 1.14 0.40 3.54 ± 1.20 3.69 ± 1.08 0.27 eGFR (ml /min/1.73 m2) 104.24 ± 23.65 102.33 ± 24.15 0.56 96.17 ± 22.64 88.76 ± 24.47 0.00 Creatinine (µmol/l) 87.60 ± 21.44 87.49 ± 20.86 0.97 77.39 ± 16.34 82.71 ± 21.20 0.01 Age (< 40 years), n (%) 67 (48.6) 35 (40.2) 0.31 87 (34.9) 32 (25.0) 0.00 Age (40–59 years), n (%) 29 (21.0) 17 (19.5) 90 (36.1) 37 (28.9) Age (> 60 years), n (%) 42 (30.4) 35 (40.2%) 72 (28.9%) 59 (46.1%) High glucose, n (%) 39 (28.6) 30 (34.5) 0.32 93 (37.3) 35 (27.6) 0.06 High HOMA, n (%) 28 (20.3) 32 (36.8) 0.01 56 (22.5) 50 (39.4) 0.00 High IL-6, n (%) 12 (27.3) 6 (17.1) 0.29 8 (13.1) 6 (15.0) 0.79 High CRP, n (%) 36 (26.3) 16 (18.4) 0.17 92 (36.9) 54 (42.2) 0.32 High TC, n (%) 32 (23.85) 25 (30.5) 0.26 84 (34.9) 46 (36.8) 0.71 Low HDL-C, n (%) 51 (38.3) 31 (38.8) 0.95 55 (23.2) 30 (24.4) 0.80 High LDL-C, n (%) 60 (45.5) 40 (50.0) 0.52 128 (55.4) 67 (54.9) 0.93 High TG, n (%) 26 (19.5) 22 (27.5) 0.18 60 (24.9) 43 (34.4) 0.06 High TC/HDL-C, n (%) 19 (14.3) 9 (11.3) 0.53 51 (21.5) 22 (17.9) 0.42 ACR, albumin–creatinine ratio; HOMA, homeostatic model assessment; IL-6, hs-CRP, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein; TC, total cholesterol; HDL-C, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL-C, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; TG, triglycerides; eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate; NA, normoalbuminuria; MA, microalbuminaria.
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