

CARDIOVASCULAR JOURNAL OF AFRICA • Volume 29, No 5, September/October 2018
AFRICA
327
factors and procedural outcomes of lower extremity arterial disease.
J
Vasc Surg
2010;
52
: 1196–1202. doi: 10.1016/j.jvs.2010.05.106.
14. Brevetti G, Bucur R, Balbarini A, Melillo E, Novo S, Muratori I,
et al
. Women and peripheral arterial disease: same disease, different
issues.
J Cardiovasc Med
(Hagerstown) 2008;
9
: 382–388. doi: 10.2459/
JCM.0b013e3282f03b90.
15. Postley JE, Perez A, Wong ND, Gardin JM. Prevalence and distribu-
tion of sub-clinical atherosclerosis by screening vascular ultrasound in
low and intermediate risk adults: the New York physicians study.
J Am
Soc Echocardiogr
2009;
22
: 1145–1151. doi: 10.1016/j.echo.2009.07.010.
16. Gardner AW, Montgomery PS, Blevins SM, Parker DE. Gender and
ethnic differences in arterial compliance in patients with intermit-
tent claudication.
J Vasc Surg
2010;
51
: 610–615. doi: 10.1016/j.
jvs.2009.09.059.
17. Ridker PM, Stampfer MJ, Rifai N. Novel risk factors for systemic
atherosclerosis: a comparison of C-reactive protein, fibrinogen, homo-
cysteine, lipoprotein(a), and standard cholesterol screening as predictors
of peripheral arterial disease.
J Am Med Assoc
2001;
285
: 2481–2485.
doi: 10.1001/jama.285.19.2481.
18. Lowe GD, Fowkes FG, Dawes J, Donnan PT, Lennie SE, Housley
E. Blood viscosity, fibrinogen, and activation of coagulation and
leukocytes in peripheral arterial disease and the normal population
in the Edinburgh Artery Study.
Circulation
1993;
87
: 1915–1920. doi:
10.1161/01.CIR.87.6.1915.
19. Fowkes FG. Fibrinogen and peripheral arterial disease.
Eur Heart J
1995;
16
(Suppl A): 36–40; discussion 40–31. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/16.
suppl_A.36.
20. Lakoski SG, Cushman M, Criqui M, Rundek T, Blumenthal RS,
D’Agostino RB Jr,
et al.
Gender and C-reactive protein: data from the
Multiethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA) cohort.
Am Heart J
2006;
152
: 593–598. doi: 10.1016/j.ahj.2006.02.015.
21. Aboyans V, Criqui MH, Denenberg JO, Knoke JD, Ridker PM, Fronek
A. Risk factors for progression of peripheral arterial disease in large
and small vessels.
Circulation
2006;
113
: 2623–2629. doi: 10.1161/
CIRCULATIONAHA.105.608679.
22. Pradhan AD, Shrivastava S, Cook NR, Rifai N, Creager MA, Ridker
PM. Symptomatic peripheral arterial disease in women: nontradi-
tional biomarkers of elevated risk.
Circulation
2008;
117
: 823–831. doi:
10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.719369.
23. Gardner AW, Montgomery PS, Casanegra AI, Silva-Palacios F, Ungvari
Z, Csiszar A. Association between gait characteristics and endothelial
oxidative stress and inflammation in patients with symptomatic periph-
eral artery disease.
Age
(Dordr) 2016;
38
: 64. doi: 10.1007/s11357-016-
9925-y.
24. Van Wijk DF, Boekholdt SM, Wareham NJ, Ahmadi-Abhari S,
Kastelein JJ, Stroes ES,
et al.
C-reactive protein, fatal and nonfatal
coronary artery disease, stroke, and peripheral artery disease in the
prospective EPIC-Norfolk cohort study.
Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol
2013;
33
: 2888–2894. doi: 10.1161/ATVBAHA.113.301736.
25. Stone PA, Schlarb H, Campbell JE, Williams D, Thompson SN, John
M,
et al
. C-reactive protein and brain natriuretic peptide as predictors
of adverse events after lower extremity endovascular revascularization.
J
Vasc Surg
2014;
60
: 652–660. doi: 10.1016/j.jvs.2014.03.254.
26. Jarvisalo MJ, Harmoinen A, Hakanen M, Paakkunainen U, Viikari J,
Hartiala J,
et al.
Elevated serum C-reactive protein levels and early arte-
rial changes in healthy children.
Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol
2002;
22
:
1323–1328. doi: 10.1161/01.ATV.0000024222.06463.21.
27. Zieske AW, Tracy RP, McMahan CA, Herderick EE, Homma S,
Malcom GT,
et al
. Elevated serum C-reactive protein levels and
advanced atherosclerosis in youth.
Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol
2005;
25
: 1237–1243. doi: 10.1161/01.ATV.0000164625.93129.64.
28. Juonala M, Viikari JS, Ronnemaa T, Taittonen L, Marniemi J, Raitakari
OT. Childhood C-reactive protein in predicting CRP and carotid
intima–media thickness in adulthood: the Cardiovascular Risk in Young
Finns Study. Arterioscler
Thromb Vasc Biol
2006;
26
: 1883–1888. doi:
10.1161/01.ATV.0000228818.11968.7a.
29. Giannini C, de Giorgis T, Scarinci A, Ciampani M, Marcovecchio ML,
Chiarelli F,
et al
. Obese related effects of inflammatory markers and
insulin resistance on increased carotid intima media thickness in pre-
pubertal children.
Atherosclerosis
2008;
197
: 448–456. doi: 10.1016/j.
atherosclerosis.2007.06.023.
30. Khandanpour N, Loke YK, Meyer FJ, Jennings B, Armon MP.
Homocysteine and peripheral arterial disease: systematic review and
meta-analysis.
Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg
2009;
38
: 316–322. doi:
10.1016/j.ejvs.2009.05.007.
31. Fryer RH, Wilson BD, Gubler DB, Fitzgerald LA, Rodgers GM.
Homocysteine, a risk factor for premature vascular disease and throm-
bosis, induces tissue factor activity in endothelial cells.
Arterioscler
Thromb
1993;
13
: 1327–1333. doi: 10.1161/01.ATV.13.9.1327.
32. Aronow WS. Peripheral arterial disease in women.
Maturitas
2009;
64
:
204–211. doi: 10.1016/j.maturitas.2009.10.001.
33. Malinow MR, Kang SS, Taylor LM, Wong PW, Coull B, Inahara T,
et al.
Prevalence of hyperhomocyst(e)inemia in patients with periph-
eral arterial occlusive disease.
Circulation
1989;
79
: 1180–1188. doi:
10.1161/01.CIR.79.6.1180.
34. Boushey CJ, Beresford SA, Omenn GS, Motulsky AG. A quantitative
assessment of plasma homocysteine as a risk factor for vascular disease.
Probable benefits of increasing folic acid intakes.
J Am Med Assoc
1995;
274
: 1049–1057. doi: 10.1001/jama.1995.03530130055028.
35. Aronow WS, Ahn C. Association between plasma homocysteine and
peripheral arterial disease in older persons.
Coron Artery Dis
1998;
9
:
49–50. doi:
36. Garofolo L, Barros N Jr, Miranda F Jr, D’Almeida V, Cardien LC,
Ferreira SR. Association of increased levels of homocysteine and
peripheral arterial disease in a Japanese-Brazilian population.
Eur J
Vasc Endovasc Surg
2007;
34
: 23–28. doi: 10.1016/j.ejvs.2007.02.008.
37. Bertoia ML, Pai JK, Cooke JP, Joosten MM, Mittleman MA, Rimm
EB,
et al
. Plasma homocysteine, dietary B vitamins, betaine, and choline
and risk of peripheral artery disease.
Atherosclerosis
2014;
235
: 94–101.
doi: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2014.04.010.
38. Zhu W, Huang X, Li M, Neubauer H. Elevated plasma homocysteine in
obese schoolchildren with early atherosclerosis.
Eur J Pediatr
2006;
165
:
326–331. doi: 10.1007/s00431-005-0033-8.
39. Erkocoglu M, Ozon ZA, Gocmen R, Alikasifoglu A, Gonc N, Kandemir
N. Carotid intima–media thickness in adolescents with increased risk for
atherosclerosis.
Turk J Pediatr
2013;
55
: 510–518. doi:
40. Volpato S, Vigna GB, McDermott MM, Cavalieri M, Maraldi C,
Lauretani F,
et al
. Lipoprotein(a), inflammation, and peripheral arterial
disease in a community-based sample of older men and women (the
InCHIANTI study).
Am J Cardiol
2010;
105
: 1825–1830. doi: 10.1016/j.
amjcard.2010.01.370.
41. Forbang NI, Criqui MH, Allison MA, Ix JH, Steffen BT, Cushman
M,
et al.
Sex and ethnic differences in the associations between
lipoprotein(a) and peripheral arterial disease in the Multi-Ethnic Study
of Atherosclerosis.
J Vasc Surg
2016;
63
: 453–458. doi: 10.1016/j.
jvs.2015.08.114.
42. Ye Z, Ali Z, Klee GG, Mosley TH Jr, Kullo IJ. Associations of candi-
date biomarkers of vascular disease with the ankle-brachial index and
peripheral arterial disease.
Am J Hypertens
2013;
26
: 495–502. doi:
10.1093/ajh/hps073.